Prepositions, Conjunctions, Adverbs, Particles & Interjections

1. Prepositions

1.1 Introduction

Prepositions in Outidic are simple monosyllables ending in a vowel. Just as Labbé in his "Lingua Universalis" often simply reversed Latin prepositions, so Dr Outis in his "Lingua Communis" often reversed the Greek prepositions, though in Dr Outis' case it meant also dropping the final vowel of the Greek, for example:

Meaning	Labbé			Dr Outis
	Lingua Universalis	Latin		Lingua Communis	Greek
from	ba	ab		pa	ἀπὀ (apó)
in	ni	in		ne	ἐν (en)

He also used shortened forms found in Greek if these were suitable; e.g, κατά (katá) is found written κα (ka) before the definite article in some inscriptions, thus we find Outidic ka = down. We also occasionally find metathesis of second and third element, e.g. from the Homeric and dialect παρ (par) [= Classical παρά (pará)], we find pra = beside, next to. Sometimes we find aphaeresis, e.g. neu = without ← ἄνευ (áneu) and even bi = on both sides of ← ἀμφί (ampʰí), though with the latter it is possible that Dr Outis voiced the plosive because of the lost nasal, or he may have been influence by Latin ambi.

1.2 Table of prepositions

Dr Outis did not set out prepositions as in the table below. He gave a list of them with meanings. He also included a few sample etymologies; those given below seem the most likely, and the examples hopefully reflect Dr Outis' meanings.

Preposition	Probable Etymology	Example
bi = on both sides of	ἀμφί (ampʰí)	bi reit = on both sides of the river bi kun = on each side of the dog
di = instead of, in opposition to	ἀντί (antí)	emas aklegan ren di plem = we choose peace instead of war
za = through	Aiolic ζά (zá) = δία (día)	place: utas etrek za psol = they ran through the city time: ut ekoim za nuk = he slept through the night means, cause: etuk za dropik brat = it happened through human error
ka = down	κα (ka), a shortened form of κατά (katá) before the definite article	utas etrekan ka boun = they were running down the hill ut elaunan ploit ka reit = he was driving the boat down the river (i.e. with the flow of the river).
ke = out of; since [time]; of [partitive]	ἐκ (ek) or ἐξ (eks)	place: kun etrek ke dom = the dog ran out of the house time: ut akoiman ke tou deil = he has been sleeping since this afternnon partitive: em eblep trin ke utas = I saw three of them
me = after	μετά (metá)	me plem emas oksek ren = after the war we shall have peace utas etrekan me kunas = they were running after the dogs
na = up	ἀνά (aná)	ut etrekan na boun = he was running up the hill utas elaunan ploit na reit = they were driving the boat up the river (i.e. against the flow of the river).
neu = without	ἄευ (áneu)	ut elet neu mam = she came without her mother
ne = in [place], on, at [time]	ἐν (en)	place: kun ekoim ne dom = the dog slept in the house time: ne mesumer = at midday; ne Monumer = on Sunday;
pa = (away) from	ἀπὀ (apó)	direction: utas etrekan pa reit = they were running away from the river (i.e. from the direction of the river; if they had actually been wet, we would have used the preposition ke = out of) agent: utas eblepes pa emas = there were seen by us
pe = on, upon [place]	ἐπί (epí)	ut ekaizan pe pip = she was sitting on a horse
ple = except	πλήν (plḗn)	pandropas elet ple pap-ut = they all came except his father
po = to, toward(s)	Doric ποτί (potí) = πρός (prós)	ut ebanan po psol = he was going towards the city utas edos pan treus po baileu = they gave all the treasure to the king/ they gave the king all the treasure.
pra = next to, at the side of	παρ (par), short for παρά (pará)	ut ekaizan par pap = she was sitting next to [her] father*
pre = around, about, concerning	Aiolic περ (per), = for (perí)	utas ekaizan pre pur = they were sitting around the fire ut elegan pre mam-utaut = she was talking about her own mother
pro = before, in front of	πρό (pró)	pro plem emas eksek ren = before the war we had peace utas ekaizan pro dom = they were sitting in front of the house
pru = above, over	ὑπέρ (hupér)	roinas epetan pru domas = birds were flying above the houses paideu etrek pru geup = the boy ran over the bridge
pu = below, under, beneath	ὑπό (hupó)	roinas epetan pu geup = birds were flying below the bridge neras ekoiman pu geup = the men we sleeping under the bridge
se = into, until	ἐς (es) or είς (eis)	place: kun etrek se dom = the dog ran into the house time: ut ekoim se mesumer = he slept till midday
su = with	σύν (sún)	accompaniment: ut elet su pap = he came with [his] father manner: ut alegan su ksous = he speaks with authority instrument: ut erug kep su pap ksap-ut = he dug the garden with his father's spade

^*If the object 'belongs to' the subject, Dr Outis seems to have followed ancient practice of omitting the possessive, except for emphasis or to avoid ambiguity.

2. Conjunctions

2.1 Introduction

The basic conjunctions in Outidic are likewise simple monosyllables ending in a vowel, except for the compound oute = nor ← ou = not + te = and - cf. Greek οὔτε (oúte) ← οὐ (ou) + τε (te).

Dr Outis gave a list of conjunctions in a manner not dissimilar from that used by Labbé in his book. It is not certain, however, that the list given is a complete list of all conjunctions.

On thing seems clear, however: unlike Classical Greek, all conjunctions that connect clauses stand first word in the clause, whereas in Greek some, e.g γάρ (gár) stood second. He also, having used kai (from ancient καί = and, also) to be only an adverb = also, he apparently used τε (te) "and", which was enclitic in Greek, as a normal connective before its word, phrase or clause; thus, coincidentally, both Dr Outis' "Lingua Communis" and Labbé's "Lingua Universalis" have the same word for and, Labbé's being an inversion of Latin et.

2.2 Table of conjunctions

The table below lists those conjunctions that Dr Outis gave, with the somewhat antiquated category names used by him. Also I have included 'Probable etymologies' although Dr Outis himself gave none.

Category	Conjunction	Probable Etymology	Example
Copulative	te = and	τε (te)	neras te gunas = men and women paideu ekaizan pe geup, te paidei eneusan ne reit = the boy was sitting on the bridge, and the girl was swimming in the river
	te … te = both … and		te neras te gunas = both men and women
Disjunctive	le = or	Perhaps ἤ (ḗ) with euphonic initial l- ?	kunas le louras = dogs or cats
	le … le = either … or		le umaut oleg po ut, le em oleg po ut = either you will tell him yourself, or I shall tell him
	oute = nor	ou (not) + te (and)	kun ou ain ne dom, oute ut ain ne kep = the dog is not in the house, nor is it in the garden
	oute … oute = neither … nor		oute paideias oute paideuas = neither girls nor boys
Adversative	la = but	ἀλλά (allá)	lour ein ne kep, la kun ou eblep ut = the cat was in the garden, but the dog did not see it
	moi = however	μέντοι (méntoi) ?	paideu aleg to ut elet po dom; moi emas ou eblep ut = the boy says [that] he came to the house; however, we did not see him
	koi = yet	καίτοι (kaítoi) ?	um eblep poul totas, koi um ou ain sop = you have seen many things, yet you are not wise.
Concessive	kre = although	καίπερ (kaíper) ?	kre um ain sop, um ou agros pantot = although you are wise, you do not know everything
Conditional	kei = if	εἶκ (eîk) (found occasionally for εἶ (ei) before a vowel)	kei um oban, em kai oban = if you go, I shall go also.   kei ut elab treus, ut oklazes = if he took the treasure, he will be punished
Illative	nou = therefore	οὖν (oûn)	em anoiz; nou em ain = I think; therefore I am
Causal	gra = for	γάρ (gár)	ut eban po reit; gra ut eboul neusai keintop = he went to the river; for he wished to swim there

 

3. Adverbs, Particles & Interjections

3.1 Adverbs

Both Dr Outis and Labbé had a section "De aduerbiis & interjectionibus" following the section on conjunctions. However, we have already come across some adverbs on previous pages:

• numeric adverbs in section 1.5 of 'Expressions of Number & Time.'
• correlative adverbs of place, time, manner & cause in section 3 of 'Other Pronouns.'

On the latter page we found toumer = today, toumen = this month, tounet = this year; Dr Outis gave his language a prefix corresponding to English "yester-", namely ze-, hence zemer = yesterday, zemen = last month, zenet = last year, as well the prefix rau-, hence: raumer = tomorrow, raumen = next month, raunet = next year.

Descriptive adjectives may be used as adverbs of manner; thus, e.g. gat = good [adj.], well [adv.].

Adverbs are placed before the word they modify; there is no change to an adjective when it is used as an adverb. e.g.

• gat paideu = a good boy ~ paidei gat etrek = the girl ran well
• za-poul domas = very many houses ~ ut za-poul agap dlepei = she loves her sister very much

3.2 Prepositions used with adverbs

Prepositions may be used before adverbs of place and time, e.g.

• Um obanan po keintop = He'll be going there.
• Pa tintop ut elet? = Where did he come from?
• Se tinkair ut ekoim? = Till when did he sleep?
• Za tinkair ut ekoiman = (Through when was he sleeping?) How long was he sleeping?
• Ke tinkair akoiman? = Since what time has he been sleeping?

3.3 The Particles ra and tei

The following two particles have a grammatical function and are placed first in their clause:

Particle	Probable Etymology	Use	Example
ra	ἆρα (âra)	introduces a question, if there is no specific interrogative pronoun, adjective or adverb	Ra kun ain ne dom? = Is the dog in the house?
rale ... rale	ra + le (or)	Marks an alternative question.	Rale kun ain en dom rale ut eban se kep? = Is the dog in the house or did it go into the garden?
tei	εἴθε (eítʰe)	modifies an imperative to make it a wish	Let! = Come! ~ Tei um let = May you come/ Would that you would come. Ut koiman! = Let him sleep on! ~ Tei ut koiman = May he sleep on/ Would that he sleeps on. Emas ban! = Let's go! ~ Tei emas ban = May we go/ Would that we would go.

3.4 Interjections

The following are the interjections listed by Dr Outis:

Interjection	Possible Etymology	Use	Example
a	ἆ (â)	An exclamation of surprise, pity or contempt; may also optionally be used as vocative particle.	A, dom ain pru-meg! = Oh, the house is too big! A, tinik kak drop ut ain! = Oh, what a bad person he is! A paidas, po tintop umas abanan? = Children, where are you going?
ai	ἀί (aí)	Interjection of astonishment or grief	Ai, baileu eksoines! = Oh, the king has been killed!
ga	ἄγε (áge)	Come!, Come now!	ga, emas ban po psol = Come! Let's go to the city!
de	δή (dḗ)	Of course, you see	de emas oban = Of course we'll go.
dou	ἰδού (idoú)	Lo! Behold!	dou, baileu-um aletan = Belold! your king is coming
kou	οὐχί (oukʰí)	No [negative answer]	Ra ut akoiman? Kou, ut ou akoiman = Is he sleeping? No, he isn't
nai	ναί (naí)	Yes [affirmative answer]	Ra ut akoiman? Nai, ut akoiman = Is he sleeping? Yes, he is

 

Appendix: Vocabulary

• For prepositions, see Section 1 above
• For conjunctions, see Section 2 above
• For ra, tei and interjections, see Section 3 above

Vocabulary new to this page:

Reminder - Outidic alphabet: A B G D E Z I K L M N O P R S T U

banai = to go	dosai = to give	ksous = authority	plem = war
boulai = to wish	kaizai = to sit	launai = to drive	ploit = boat
boun = hill	klazai = to punish	letai = to come	ren = peace
banai = to go	klegai = to choose	neusai = to swim	roin = bird
brat = error	ksap = spade	reit = river	rugait = to dig
grosai = to know	ksoinai = to kill	pip = horse	saup = soap
			treus = treasure