Pronouns

1. Emphasizing Adjective & Emphatic Pronoun

1.1 Emphasizing adjective

Dr Outis used aut (← αὐτός autos) which, unlike other adjectives, lacks an initial consonant, but which, just like any other adjective, precedes its noun, e.g. aut gun = the woman herself; aut lour = the cat itself.

1.2 Emphatic pronouns

Dr Outis combined aut with personal pronouns to give the following emphatic pronouns:

	Singular	Plural
1st person	emaut myself	emautas ourselves
2nd person	umaut thyself, yourself	umautas yourselves
1st person	utaut himself, herself, itself	utautas themselves

Examples:
emautas enip kun = We ourselves washed the dog / We washed the dog ourselves.
utautas opoilan dom = They themselves will be selling the house / They will be selling the house themselves.
emaut elab ut = I myself took it / I took it myself.

These forms may also, like the ordinary personal pronouns, be used with a possessive meaning, thus e.g.
dom-emaut = my own house
kun-utaut = his/her own dog
psol-utautas = their own city

Notice the difference between:
aut baileu dom-ut = the house of the king himself
baileu dom-utaut = the king's own house
baileu aut-ut dom = the king's house itself / the very house of the king

 

2. Possessive, Reflexive & Reciprocal Pronouns

2.1 Possessive Pronouns

We have already seen that instead of possessive adjectives, personal pronouns were suffixed to nouns, e.g. pap-em = my father; mam-um = your mother; mam keiras-ut (mother her hands) = mother's hands, etc. Just as Outidic did not have possessive adjectives, so it also did not have possessive pronouns. The meaning of "mine", "yours", "theirs" etc. was expressed with the preposition po (see page on Prepositions), e.g. kun ain po em = the dog is mine.

2.2 Reflexive Pronouns

In ancient Greek reflexives were often expressed by the middle voice. This is what we find in Outidic also, especially in those instances where English doesn't express the reflexive, e.g. em anipanes = I am washing (myself) (cf. French: je me lave); em anipanes keiras = I am washing my hands (cf. French: je me lave les mains); ut elabes = he took himself; ut eleganes = he was telling himself).

If it is necessary to express the pronoun for clarity's sake or for emphasis, then, in the manner of ancient Greek, forms identical to emphatic pronouns are used, e.g. em anipanes emaut = I am washing myself; ut eksoines utaut = he killed himself; utas eblepes utautas = they saw themselves.

(Using the same forms as both emphatic pronouns and reflexives is, of course, what English does. Dr outis, however, seems to have convinced himself he was following Greek models rather than copying English. He also justified this use by claiming that the pronoun was emphasizing the object 'understood' in the middle ending -es.)

2.3 Reciprocal Pronoun

The reciprocal pronoun elas is plural just as it was in ancient Greek pronoun (ἀλλήλους [masc. acc.], ἀλλήλας [fem. acc.], ἄλληλα [neut. acc.] etc.), e.g. emas agap elas = we love one another); umas agap elas = you love one another; utas agap elas - they love one another.

To show possession, -elas is appended like the personal pronouns, be , e.g. utas agap dom-elas = they love one another's house.

 

3. Correlatives

3.1 Introduction

Tables of correlative pronouns, adjectives & adverbs are common in grammars of ancient Greek; but such tables also showed up the irregularities in the language. I tried to bring some regularity to them in ΤΑΚΕ. Whether Dr Outis tried anything similar, I do not know. If he did, he must have given up on it. In fact he seems to have been more influenced by English forms such as "no one, nothing, anyone, anything, anytime, sometime" etc.

The basic words are the adjectives:

• zin (indefinite) = some, any
• tin (interrogative) = which, what
• tou (proximate demonstrative) = this, these
• kein (distal demonstrative) = that, those
• pan (collectives/ distributives) = every, all
• ou (negative) = no

As in many languages, the interrogatives could also be used in exclamations. For relative pronouns, see Section 4 below.

zin is probably an arbitrary invention, but connexion with Arcadian ͷις has been suggested. The origin of the others is clear enough: τίς, τί, with oblique cases formed from stem τίν- ; τοῦτο etc.; (ἐ)κεῖνο etc.; πᾶν and οὐ respectively.

It will be seen that these adjectives end in -n or a diphthong (kein has both a diphthong and final -n). It apparently did not trouble Dr Outis that ou might be used both as an adverb meaning not and as an adjective meaning no.

Dr Outis also used both tin and tou as adverbs of degree, i.e. how and so, hyphenated before adjectives; e.g.
tin-paidik = how childish    tin-meg = how large    tin-poul = how much/ how many
tou-paidik = so childish      tou-meg = so large      tou-poul = so much/ so many

3.2 Correlative Adjectives

We have seen the simple adjectives above, e.g.
zin kun = any dog   tin kun? = which dog?   tou kun = this dog
kein kun = that dog   pan kun = every dog   ou kun = no dog.

By further adding the adjectival suffix to the simple adjective, we obtain the equivalent of English forms such as what sort of, what kind of.., this sort of, that kind of… etc.; e.g.
zinik kun = any sort of dog   tinik kun? = which sort of dog?   touik kun = this sort of dog
keinik kun = that sort dog   panik kun = every sort of dog   ouik kun = no sort of dog.

3.3 Correlative Pronouns

These are formed by adding drop (person) or tot (thing) with no intervening -u-, cf. English forms such as: anyone, anything; someone, something; nobody, nothing etc.; e.g.
zindrop = someone, anyone; zintot = something, anything;
tindrop? = who?; tintot? = what?;
oudrop = no one, nobody; outot = nothing

3.4 Correlative Adverbs

These are similarly formed on the analogy of English sometime, anytime. The following words are appended with no intervening -u-, e.g:

• top = place, e.g. zintop = somwhere; toutop = here; outop = nowhere
• kair = time, occasion, e.g. tinkair? = when?; keinkair = then; pankair = always
• dod = way, manner, e.g. tindod? = how?; toudod = thus, so, in this way; oudod = nohow, in no way
• tait = cause, e.g. tintait? = why?; toutait = for this reason; keintait = for that reason

3.5 Table of Correlatives
 

	Indefinite	Interrogative	Proximate demonstative	Distal demonstrative	Collective or Distributive	Negative
Simple adjective	zin any	Tin …? Which …?	tou this	kein that	pan every (sing.), all (pl.)	ou no
Adjective of quality	zinik any sort of … some sort of …	Tinik …? What sort of …?	touik this sort of …	keinik that sort of …	panik every sort of …	ouik no sort of …
Pronoun (person)1	zindrop anyone, anybody someone, somebody	Tindrop? Who?	toudrop this person	keindrop that person	pandrop everyone, everybody	oudrop no one, nobody
Pronoun (thing, concept)	zintot anything, something	Tintot? What?	toutot this [thing]	keintot that [thing]	pantot everything	outot nothing
Adverb of place	zintop anywhere, somewhere	Tintop? Where?	toutop here	keintop there	pantop everywhere	outop nowhere
Adverb of time	zinkair any time, some time	Tinkair? When?	toukair 2 now	keinkair then	pankair every time, always	oukair never
Adverb of manner	zindod anyhow, somehow	Tindod? How? In what way?	toudod so, in this way	keindod thus, in that way	pandod in every way	oudod in no way
Adverb of cause	zintait for some reason	Tintait? Why?	toutait for this reason	keintait for that reason	pantait for every reason	outait for no reason

¹ Possessives are shown in the usual way, e.g. Tindrop kun-ut ain toutot? Whose dog is this?.
² tou- may similarly be combined with mar, men and net, i.e. toumar = today, toumen = this month, tounet = this year.

 

4. Relative Pronouns & Adverbs

4.1 Introduction

We found on the 'Nouns, Adjectives & Personal Pronouns' page: dom o meg = the house that is big, the big house; kun o ne kep = the dog (which is) in the garden. This particle connects postposited adjectives and phrases used adjectivally to the noun they qualify. Dr Outis also used this particle to connect qualifying clauses, i.e. relative clauses, to a noun.
Note:

• In the examples we have meet so far, the word following o begins with a consonant; if the following word begins with a vowel, the relative particle (relativizer) is on.
• The noun qualified by a relative clause is traditionally called the antecedent; this term is used below.

4.2 Relative as subject of clause

If the antecedent is the same as the subject of the relative clause, the relativizer is placed immediately before the verb, e.g.

• kun on ein ne dom … = the dog that was in the house …
• drop on epoil kun … = the person who sold the dog …
• paidei on egap lour … = the girl who loved the cat …
• paideuas on eblep ner … = the boys who saw the man …

4.3 Relative as object of verb or preposition

The relativizer must be immediately followed by the subject of the clause, and the antecedent is referred to by the third person pronoun ut or utas, according to meaning. Examples are:

• paideu on em eblep ut … = the boy [whom] I saw
• kun o dlepei-em opoil ut … = the dog [that] my sister will sell …
• domas o gun eblep utas … = the houses [which] the woman saw …
• paid on um edos glog po ut … = the child [that] you gave the clock to …
• saup on um anipanes su ut … = the soap [that] you are washing with…
• kep on um ablepan kun ne ut … = the garden [that] you see the dog in …

4.4 Possessive relative

It follows from the above that the relative "whose" will be expressed by o or on and -ut appended to the appropriate noun, e.g.

• ner o kun-ut ein ne kep … = the man whose dog was in the garden …
• paidei o lour-ut etrek ke kep … = the girl whose cat ran out of the garden …
• gun on em eblep paid-ut … = the woman whose child I saw …
• drop on em agap dlepei-ut … = the person whose sister I love …

4.5 Relative adverbs?

In tables of correlatives in ancient Greek we find adverbs corresponding to the relative pronouns. Outidic does not, as we have seen, actually have a relative pronoun, only a relativizer (relative particle). It appears that Dr Outis gave no 'relative adverbs.' It is not entirely clear; he seems to have used kair adverbially with the relativizer, e.g. kair on um oblep dom, um oblep kai meg kep = when you see the house, you will see a large garden also.

But we find: top o treus-um ain ne ut, keintop ain kai krad-um = where your treasure is, there your heart is also.

 

Appendix: Vocabulary

Reminder:

• For emphatic, reflexive & reciprocal pronouns, see Sections 1 & 2 above.
• For correlative pronouns, see Section 3 above.
• For the relativizer, see Section 4 above.

Other vocabulary new to this page:

Reminder - Outidic alphabet: A B G D E Z I K L M N O P R S T U

gapai = to love	dod = way, manner, method	ksoinai = to kill
bail = monarch, king or queen bailei = queen baileu = king bailik = royal	dosai = to give	tait = reason, cause
	kair = time, occasion (cf. kron = time [in the abstract], duration of time)	top = place
		treus = treasure
blepai = to see	krad = heart