το πρόθεσι
Prepositions

1. Initial Considerations

Prepositions were invariable in ancient Greek and, therefore, come across almost entirely into ΤΑΚΕ with no change. There is, however, a difference in their use between ancient Greek and ΤΑΚΕ, namely in the ancient language prepositions could, and often did, change meaning according the case they governed. This is not possible in ΤΑΚΕ where nouns are invariable.

1.1 Ancient appositions not used in ΤΑΚΕ

There are three prepositions and one postposition not used in ΤΑΚΕ, namely:

• The preposition ἄτερ which is mainly poetic and had the same meaning as ἄνευ (without, apart from).
• The preposition ἄχρι is dropped in favor of its synonym μέχρι (until, as far as).
• The preposition ὡς was used mainly in Attic as an alternative to εἰς before personal names. It is not used in ΤΑΚΕ which retains ancient εἰς and already uses ὡς with the meaning of "as".
• The postposition ἕνεκα/ ἕνεκεν (on account of, for the sake of) is not used as I do not want to introduce postpositions into ΤΑΚΕ as well as prepositions. For these meanings ΤΑΚΕ uses periphrases similar to those we use in English.

1.2 Elision of final vowel

All disyllabic prepositions ending in a single vowel, except for περί (about) and μέχρι (until), drop their final vowel before a word beginning with a vowel; also, if the consonant before the final vowel is a voiceless plosive, it becomes a fricative before a vowel with rough breathing, e.g.:
ἀπό το πόλιν = "from the city"     ἀπ᾽ ἐμέ = "from me"     ἀφ᾽ ἡμᾶς = "from us"

 

2. Motion

2.1 Four Basic Prepositions

Consider the table below

General direction	Specific origin or destination
ἀπό (away) from ←	ἐκ/ ἐξ out of ←|
προς to, towards →	εἰς into →|

Note: ἐκ is used before words beginning with a consonant, ἐξ before a vowel, e.g.
ἐκ το πόλι (from out of the city), but ἐξ ἐκεῖνο το πόλι (from out of that city).

As well as being used before noun phrases, the above four prepositions may be used before adverbs of place, e.g. ἀπό ποῦ; (Where from? Whence?), πρός που (to some place), ἐξ ἐκεῖ (out of there), εἰς ἐνθάδε (into here).

2.2 Eight Compound Prepositions

There were several prepositions in ancient Greek that showed motion towards, motion from or non-motion according to the case of the noun they governed, e.g. παρά + accusative = "to(wards) the side of," παρά + genitive ="from the side of," παρά + dative ="at the side of." Clearly this is not possible in ΤΑΚΕ where the nouns are invariable.

In the ancient language, however, we find the prepositions παρέκ/ παρέξ (← παρά + ἐκ/ ἐξ) and ὑπέκ/ ὑπέξ (← ὑπό + ἐκ/ ἐξ), and the verbal prefixes παρεισ- (← παρά + εἰσ-) and ὑπεισ- (← ὑπό + εἰσ-). We also find the following verbal prefixes: ἐπεκ-/ ἐπεξ- (← ἐπί + ἐκ-/ ἐξ-), ἐπεισ- (← ἐπί + εἰσ-), ὑπερεκ-/ ὑπερεξ- (← ὑπέρ + ἐκ-/ ἐξ-), and ὑπερεισ- (← ὑπέρ + εἰσ-). I have, therefore, adopted and adapted these forms to give ΤΑΚΕ eight compound prepositions of motion, thus:

Bassic preposition (no motion)	Compound preposition
	Motion towards	Motion from
ἐπί on, upon	ἐπ᾽ εἰς onto	ἐπ᾽ ἐκ/ ἐξ from upon
παρά next to, beside	παρ᾽ εἰς to (the side of)	παρ᾽ ἐκ/ ἐξ from (the side of)
ὑπέρ over, above	ὑπέρ εἰς over, above [showing forward movement]	ὑπέρ ἐκ/ ἐξ from over, from above
ὑπό under, underneath	ὑπ᾽ εἰς under, underneath [showing forward movement]	ὑπ᾽ ἐκ/ ἐξ from under

When these compounds first appeared in the original version of ΤΑΚΕ, there was an objection that the two elements came the wrong way round. But one should observe, for example, that we do not have *ἐπ᾽ ἀπό, which would indeed be wrong if we take the prepositions serially as in English "from upon"; we have ἐπ᾽ ἐκ/ ἐξ where ἐκ/ ἐξ has its proper meaning of 'away from a definite place' and ἐπ(ί) specifies that place, i.e. upon something. Similarly in all the other compounds εἰς and ἐκ/ ἐξ retain their proper meanings and the first part of the compound specifies the origin or destination of the motion. Like the English "onto" (ἐπ᾽ εἰς), they are compound prepositions.

 

3. Other uses of εἰς and ἐκ/ ἐξ

We may summarize these under two headings:

3.1 Metaphorical

• εἰς may express a relation toward[s], in/with regard to, for the purpose of, e.g. φιλία εἰς ἄλληλο (friendship toward[s] one another), καταφρόνει εἰς το πολεμικό χρήματο (to be contemptuous with regard to matters of war), ὅπλιζε εἰς το πόλεμο (to arm oneself for [the purpose of] war).
• ἐκ/ ἐξ may express the origin out of which something is made, the origin by means of or in consequence of, e.g. σφᾶς ποίει το πλοῖο ἐκ ξύλο (they made the boat made [out] of wood), σφᾶς γένε πλούσιο ἐξ ἐμπορία και ἐργασία (they became rich by [means of] commerce and trade), ἕ ἀπόθανε ἐκ τραύματο (he died in consequence of his wound).

3.2 Indirect Object & Possession

From the table at the end of the above section, it can be seen that the ΤΑΚΕ prepositions εἰς and ἐκ/ ἐξ used in compound prepositions could be considered the equivalent of ancient "case markers". For this reason, I have used them also to express the indirect object and possession which, in the ancient language, were always expressed by the dative and genitive cases respectively. Therefore in ΤΑΚΕ:

• The indirect object is expressed by εἰς, e.g. το Δαυείδ δῶ δύο βιβλίο εἰς το Φίλιππο = (David gave two books to Philip) David gave Philip two books.
• Possession is expressed by ἐκ/ ἐξ, e.g. τόδε ἔς το ἐξ ἐμέ βιβλίο = (This is the of me book) This is my book.

 

4. List of ΤΑΚΕ prepositions

ἀμφί = on both sides of

Example: ἀμφί το ποταμό (on both sides of the river).

ἀνά = up, up along

Examples: ἀνά ρόη (up current, i.e. up stream), ἀνά το πύργο (up the tower). When used as a prefix in a compound, ἀνά may also have the meaning "back, again", similar to the Latin re-.

ἄνευ = without, except, apart from

Example: ἄνευ κλίσι (without inflexions).

ἀντί = opposite; instead of; in return for

With place the preposition denotes 'opposite, over against', e.g. ἀντί το πόλι (opposite the city); by extension this meaning may also mean 'in opposition to, against', e.g. ἀντί το ἐχθρό (against the enemy). It can also mean 'in place of, instead of', e.g. ἡμᾶς αἵρει το εἰρήνη ἀντί το πόλεμο (we choose peace in place of war). It may also denote exchange 'at the price of, in return for', e.g. ἕ παράλαβε το νῆσο ἀντί χρήματο (he received the island in return for money [paid]). The preposition has the same range of meanings when used as a prefix.

ἀπό = from, away from

ἀπό may be used of place or time, e.g. ἀπό το πόλι (from the city), ἀπό τόδε το ἡμέρα (from this day). It may also show cause, e.g. ἀπό τόδε το τολμήματο (as a result of [his] daring act).

διά = through

διά may be used of place (e.g. διά το πόλι through the city) or time (e.g. διά το νυκτό through the night). It may also, like English 'through', denote cause, e.g. τύχε διά ἀνθρωπικό ἁμαρτήματο (it happened through human error, because of human error). In compounds it has the meaning '[right] through' (of space).

εἰς = into

εἰς is also used in certain phrasal prepositions and to denote the indirect object, see the above two sections.

ἐν = in

It never indicates motion, but is used like the Latin 'in' with the ablative. It may also be used of time as well as place, cf. ἐν χειμῶνο in winter, ἐν Λονδίνιο in London.

ἐκ (before consonants), ἐξ (before vowels) = out of, from [within]

The preposiτion may be used of place or time, e.g. ἕ φύγε ἐκ Λονδίνιο (he fled from London), ἐκ το μάλιστα παλαιό καιρό (from the most ancient times). It can also show origin, e.g. το ὄνειρο ἔς ἐκ το Διό (the dream is from Zeus). For its use in certain phrasal prepositions and to show possession, see the two sections above.

ἐπί = on, upon

This does not show motion, cf. ἕ στῆ ἐπί πύργο (he stood on a tower). 'Motion towards' is shown by the phrase ἐπ᾽ εἰς, e.g. ἕ ἀνάβη ἐπ᾽ εἰς ἵππο (she got onto a horse); and 'motion from' is shown by the phrase ἐπ᾽ ἐκ, e.g. ἕ κατάβη ἐπ᾽ ἐκ το ἵππο (she got down from off the horse).

κατά = down

Examples are: κατά ρόη (down current, i.e. down stream), κατά το ὄρο (down the mountain). It can also mean "according to", e.g. κατά το νόμο (according to the law) and, as in the ancient language, it may also be used distributively, e.g. κατά τρία (by threes, three by three), καθ᾽ ἡμέρα (day by day, daily); δέκα μέτρο κατά λεπτό (ten metres each minute, ten metres per minute). In compounds it has only the meaning 'down'.

μετά = after, behind

This may be used of place or time, e.g. μετά το λοιπό (after the rest, behind the rest), μετά τρία ἡμέρα (after three days). It may also mean 'after' in the sense of 'in pursuit of', e.g. ἕ ἔρχε μετά χρυσό (he came after gold, in search of gold). In ancient Greek it could also, with the appropriate noun case, mean 'with'; in ΤΑΚΕ 'with' is always expressed by συν, never by μετά. In compounds μετα- means 'after' and often signifies change (i.e. what happens afterwards), e.g. μετανόει (change one's mind-set, to repent).

μεταξύ = between

This preposition may be used of place, e.g. μεταξύ το γῆ και το θάλασσα ἔς το αἰγιαλό (between the land and the sea is the shore), or of time, e.g. μεταξύ νῦν και ὑστεραῖο ἑβδομάδο (between now and next week). It may also by extension be used in phrases such as μεταξύ σέ και ἐμέ (between you and me), μεταξύ το σοφία και το ἀμαθία ἔς μεγάλο διαφορία (between wisdom and ignorance there is a great difference).

μέχρι = till, until, as far as

This may be used of place, e.g. μέχρι το πόλι (as far as the city), or of time, e.g. μέχρι ὑστεραῖο ἑβδομάδο (until next week).

παρά = alongside, near

Examples are: παρά σέ (alongside you, by you), παρά το πύλη το ἐκ το πόλι (near the gate of the city, near the city gate). As we saw above, it may be used in the phrase παρ᾽ εἰς to show 'motion towards', e.g. ἕ τρέχε παρ᾽ εἰς το ποταμό (he ran towards [the bank of] the river), and with the phrase παρ᾽ ἐκ to show 'motion from', e.g. σφᾶς ἄνερχε παρ᾽ ἐκ το ναῦ (they returned from [beside] the ships). The preposition may also have the meaning "beside[s]", e.g. ἄλλο παρά τόδε το λαό (others besides these people). In compounds it has the meanings 'beside, alongside of' and may also mean 'wrongly' (i.e. beside the mark), e.g. παράπεσε (to fall from the way, to go astray, be misled).

περί = around, about

This may be used of place, e.g. σφᾶς στῆ περί το τοῖχο (they stood around the wall), or of time, e.g. περί ἐκεῖνο το καιρό (around that time, about that time). It may also mean 'about' in the sense of 'concerning', e.g. ἕ πύθε περί το πατρό (he enquired about his father).

πλην = except, except for

Example: παντό πλην ἐμέ (all except me).

προ = before, in front of

This may be used of place, e.g. προ το θύρα (before the door, in front of the door), or of time, e.g. προ δεῖπνο (before supper). It may also mean 'in defense of', e.g. σφᾶς μάχε προ το πατρίδο (they fight for their country), or 'in preference to', e.g. ἕ αἵρει θάνατο προ αἰσχύνη (he chose death before dishonor, he preferred death rather than dishonor).

προς = to, toward[s]

This preposition may be used of place, e.g. προς το πόλι (to the city, toward[s] the city), or of time, e.g. προς ἑσπέρα (toward[s] evening).

συν = with

This preposition means 'with' in the sense of 'in company with', e.g. ἕ ἔρχε συν σέ (he came with you), 'in accordance with', e.g. ἕ δρᾶ συν δίκη (she acted with justice), or to show instrumentality, e.g. ἕ τέμε τόδε συν μάχαιρα (he cut this with a knife). In compounds it means 'with, together, altogether.'

ὑπέρ = over, above

Example: ὑπέρ το ἐκ σφᾶς κεφαλή (above their heads). The preposition may be used in the phrase ὑπέρ εἰς to show 'motion towards', e.g.ἕ βῆ ὑπέρ εἰς το οὐδό (he went over the threshold), and the phrase ὑπέρ ἐκ to show 'motion from', e.g. ἕ ἔρχε ὑπέρ ἐκ το θάλασσα (he came from over the sea[s]). It may also indicate 'over' in the sense of 'in excess of', e.g. ὑπέρ δύναμι (beyond one's power), and be used metaphorically to mean 'on behalf of', e.g. ὑπέρ παντό το λαό (on behalf of all the people).

ὑπό = under, beneath

This is of static position, e.g. ὑπό το γῆ (beneath the earth). The preposition may be used in the phrase ὑπ᾽ εἰς to show 'motion towards', e.g.ἕ ἔλαυνε το πρόβατο ὑπ᾽ εἰς το σπήλαιο (he drove the sheep into the cave, under the cave), and the phrase ὑπ᾽ ἐκ to show 'motion from', e.g. σφᾶς ἔρχε ὑπ᾽ ἐκ το θάλασσα (they came from beneath the sea). It may also be used of time to mean 'towards' (just before we get there, i.e. 'underneath' the point of time we are concerned with), e.g. ὑπό νυκτό (at nightfall, at dusk), and to be used metaphorically to show the agent of a passive verb, e.g. ἕ ἀγάπα ὑπό παντό (he was loved by all) (For more about the passive, see 'Verbs: Part 2')

 

5. Prepositions used as prefixes

Prepositions may be used as prefixes, particularly with verbs, just as they were in ancient Greek. Indeed, there have been some examples of this in the above section, e.g. βῆ (to go), ἀνάβη (to go up), κατάβη (to go down). It will be noticed that the accent in these examples appears on the prefix. This will not always be so; it depends upon the length of the verb itself. The rules are:

• If the verb ends in -ε, the accent should on the third syllable from the end (the antepenultimate syllable), if possible; otherwise it goes onto the next to last, e.g. πάσε (to fall), παράπεσε (to fall away, go astray) but σχέ (to have), πρόσχε (to have [something] beforehand).
• If the the verb ends in any other vowel or diphthong, the accent will be on the next to last, as in the examples βη (to go), ανάβη (to go up), κατάβη (to go down).

Of course, prepositions that end in a single vowel will elide that vowel before another vowel, except for μέχρι, μεταξύ, προ and περί which always retain their final vowel; and ἐκ, of course, becomes ἐξ before a vowel. The prepositions ἐν and συν are also modified before certain consonants. I keep exactly the same rules as in the ancient language, thus:

• ἐν becomes
    ἐμ- before π, β, φ, ψ and μ, and
    ἐγ- /ɛŋ/ before κ, γ, χ and ξ.
    Before λ it becomes ἐλ- but remains unchanged in writing before all other consonants.
• συν remains συν- only before vowels and before τ, δ, θ and ν. Before other consonants it becomes
    συμ- before π, β, φ, ψ and μ, and
    συγ- before κ, γ, χ and ξ, and
    συλ- before λ, συρ- before ρ and συσ before σ+vowel, and
    συ- before σ+consonant and ζ.

Note: πλην does not occur as a prefix.