το άνευ κλίσι Ελληνικό: Adverbs & Prepositions

Adverbs and prepositions were invariable in ancient Greek. The prepositions, therefore, come across almost entirely into ΤΑΚΕ with no change. There is, however, a difference in their use between ancient Greek and ΤΑΚΕ, namely in in the ancient language prepositions could, and often did, change meaning according the case they governed. This is not possible in ΤΑΚΕ where nouns are invariable.

[Ancient adpositions not used in ΤΑΚΕ] [Motion] [Other uses of εις and εκ]
[List of ΤΑΚΕ prepositions] [Prepositions used as prefixes]

Adverbs

In the page "Pronouns" some local and temporal adverbs were included. Other adverbs of time or place, which are not derived from adjectives, are generally taken into ΤΑΚΕ without change. However, ΤΑΚΕ does not use any special inflexion for distinguishing adverbs from adjectives; as in German (and often in colloquial English) the adjective is simply used by itself as an adverb, e.g.: το τεχνικό γραφεύ (the skilful writer) ~ σφε γράφε τεχνικό (he writes skilfully).

Ancient adpositions not used in ΤΑΚΕ

There are three prepositions and one postposition not used in ΤΑΚΕ, namely:

The preposition ἄτερ which is mainly poetic and had the same meaning as ἄνευ (without, apart from).
The preposition ἄχρι is dropped in favor of its synonym μέχρι (until, as far as).
The preposition ως was used mainly in Attic as an alternative to εἰς before personal names. It is not used in ΤΑΚΕ which retains ancient εἰς and already uses ως with the meaning of "as".
The postposition ἕνεκα/ ἕνεκεν (on account of, for the sake of) is not used as Joseph Peanou did not want to introduce postpositions into ΤΑΚΕ as well as prepositions. For these meanings ΤΑΚΕ uses periphrases similar to those we use in English.

Motion

Consider the table below

Direction	Outside	Within
→\|	προς to, towards	εις into
←\|	από (away) from	εκ/ εξ out of

Note:

Like all disyllabic prepositions ending in a vowel, except for περί (about) and μέχρι (until), από elides (i.e. drops its final vowel) before a word beginning with a vowel, e.g. απ᾽ εκείνο το γυναικό (from that woman).
εκ is used before words beginning with a consonant, εξ before a vowel, e.g. εκ το πολι (from out of the city), but εξ εκείνο το πολι (from out of that city).
As well as being used before noun phrases, the above four prepositions may be used before adverbs of place, e.g. από πόθι; (Where from? Whence?), προς ποθί (to some place), εξ εκεί (out of there), εις τουτεί (into here).

There were several prepositions in ancient Greek that showed motion or non-motion according to the case of the noun they governed, e.g. παρά + accusative = "to(wards) the side of", παρά + genitive ="from the side of", παρά + dative ="at the side of". Clearly this is not possible in ΤΑΚΕ where the nouns are invariable.

However, Joseph noted that in the ancient language παρέκ/ παρέξ (← παρά + εκ/ εξ) occurred, and that παρεισ- (← παρά + εισ-) occurred as a verbal prefix, and that the following also occurred: ἐπεισ- (← ἐπι + εισ-), ἐπεκ-/ ἐπεξ- (← ἐπί εκ-/ εξ-), ὑπέκ/ ὑπέξ (← ὑπό + εκ/ εξ), ὑπεισ-(← ὑπό + εισ-), ὑπερεκ-/ ὑπερεξ- (← ὑπέρ + εκ/ εξ), and ὑπερεισ- ὑπεισ-(← ὑπέρ + εισ-). He resolved to adopt and to adapt these forms. Τhe result is that in ΤΑΚΕ the following four prepositions may be used as phrasal prepositions with εκ/ εξ and εις, thus:

No motion	Motion towards	Motion from
επί on, upon	επ' εις onto	επ' εκ/ εξ from upon
παρά next to, beside	παρ' εις to (the side of)	παρ' εκ/ εξ from (the side of)
υπέρ over, above	υπέρ εις over, above [showing forward movement]	υπέρ εκ/ εξ from over, from above
υπό under, underneath	υπ' εις under, underneath [showing forward movement]	υπ' εκ/ εξ from under

From the point of view of English and some other languages, the two elements in the phrasal prepositions may appear to come the wrong way round. Joseph Peanou, however, kept them as they are because that is the order in which they occurred in ancient Greek. One should not think of the two elements serially, but conjointly.

Other uses of εις and εκ

We may summarize these under three headings:

Metaphorical

εις may express a relation toward[s], in/with regard to, for the purpose of, e.g. φιλίο εις αλλήλο (friendship toward[s] one another), καταφρόνει εις το πολεμικό χρήματο (to be contemptuous with regard to matters of war), όπλιζε εις το πόλεμο (to arm oneself for [the purpose of] war).
εκ/ εξmay express the origin out of which something is made, the origin by means of or in consequence of, e.g. σφε ποίει το πλοίο εκ ξύλο (they made the boat made [out] of wood), σφέλαο γένε πλούσιο εξ εμπορίο και εργασίο (they became rich by [means of] commerce and trade), σφε απόθανε εκ τραύματο (he died in consequence of his wound).

Indirect Object & Possession

From the table at the end of the above section, it can be seen that the ΤΑΚΕ prepositions εις and εκ/ εξ are used in those phrasal prepositions almost as "case markers". For this reason Joseph Peanou decided to utiiize them also to express the indirect object and possession which, in the ancient language, were always expressed by the dative and genitive cases respectively. Therefore in ΤΑΚΕ:

The indirect object is expressed by εις, e.g. το Δαβίδ δω δύο βιβλίο εις το Φίλιππο = (David gave two books to Philip) David gave Philip two books.
Possession is expressed by εκ/ εξ, e.g. τούτο ες το εκ με βιβλίο = (This is the of me book) This is my book.

Note: εις and εκ are pronounced [iz] and [ɛg] respectively before voiced consonants, so εις το [istɔ] but εκ με [ɛgmɛ].

List of ΤΑΚΕ prepositions

αμφί = on both sides of: Example: αμφί το ποταμό (on both sides of the river). In the ancient language it was mainly Ionic and poetic and Joseph was at first inclined to drop the preposition. However, in view of its use in some common compounds (cf. English: amphibian, amphitheater) he decided to reain it, but only with the meaning given above.
ανά = up, up along: Examples: ανά ρόο (up current, i.e. up stream), ανά το πύργο (up the tower). When used as a prefix in a compound, ανά may also have the meaning "back, again", similar to the Latin re-.
άνευ = without, except, apart from: Example: άνευ κλίσι (without inflexions).
αντί = opposite; instead of; in return for: With place the preposition denotes 'opposite, over against', e.g. αντί το πόλι (opposite the city); by extension this meaning may also mean 'in opposition to, against', e.g. αντί το εχθρό (against the enemy). It can also mean 'in place of, instead of', e.g. μέλαο αίρει το ειρήνο αντί το πόλεμο (we choose peace in place of war). It may also denote exchange 'at the price of, in return for', e.g. σφε παράλαβε το νήσο αντί χρήματο (he received the island in return for money [paid]). The preposition has the same range of meanings when used as a prefix.
από = from, away from: από may be used of place or time, e.g. από το πόλι (from the city), από τούτο το ημέρο (from this day). It may also show cause, e.g. από τούτο το τολμήματο (as a result of [his] daring act).
διά = through: διά may be used of place (e.g. διά το πόλι through the city) or time (e.g. διά το νυκτό through the night). It may also, like English 'through', denote cause, e.g. τύχε διά ανθρωπικό αμαρτήματο (it happened through human error, because of human error). In compounds it has the meaning '[right] through' (of space).
εις = into: εις is also used in certain phrasal prepositions and to denote the indirect object, see the above two sections.
εν = in: It never indicates motion, but is used like the Latin 'in' with the ablative. It may also be used of time as well as place, cf. εν χειμωνο in winter, εν Λονδίνιο in London.
εκ (before consonants), εξ (before vowels) = out of, from [within]: The preposiion may be used of place or time, e.g. σφε φύγε εκ Λονδίνιο (he fled from London), εκ το μάλιστα παλαιό καιρό (from the most ancient times). It can also show origin, e.g. όνειρο ες εκ Διό (the dream is from Zeus). For its use in certain phrasal prepositions and to show possession, see the two sections above.
επί = on, upon: This does not show motion, cf. σφε στη επί πύργο (he stood on a tower). 'Motion towards' is shown by the phrase επ' εις, e.g. σφε ανάβη επ' εις ίππο (she got onto a horse); and 'motion from' is shown by the phrase επ' εκ, e.g. σφε κατάβη επ' εκ το ίππο (she got down from off the horse).
κατά = down: Examples are: κατά ρόο (down current, i.e. down stream), κατά το όρο (down the mountain). It can also mean "according to", e.g. κατά το νόμο (according to the law). In compounds it has only the meaning 'down'.
μετά = after, behind: This mean be used of place or time, e.g. μετά το λοιπό (after the rest, behind the rest), μετά τρία ημέρο (after three days). It may also mean 'after' in the sense of 'in pursuit of', e.g. σφε έρχε μετά χρυσό (he came after gold, in search of gold). In ancient Greek it could also, with the appropriate noun case, mean 'with'; in ΤΑΚΕ 'with' is always expressed by συν, never by μετά. In compounds μετα- means 'after' and often signifies change (i.e. what happens afterwards), e.g. μετανόει (change one's mind-set, to repent).
μεταξύ = between: This preposition may be used of place, e.g. μεταξύ το γέω και το θάλασσο ες το αιγιαλό (between the land and the sea is the shore), or of time, e.g. μεταξύ νυν και υστεραίο εβδομάδο (between now and next week). It may also by extension be used in phrases such as μεταξύ σε και με (between you and me), μεταξύ το σοφίο και το αμαθίο ες μεγάλο διαφορίο (between wisdom and ignorance there is a great difference).
μέχρι = till, until, as far as: This may be used of place, e.g. μέχρι το πόλι (as far as the city), or of time, e.g. μέχρι υστεραίο εβδομάδο (until next week).
παρά = alongside, near: Examples are: παρά σε (alongside you, by you), παρά το πύλο το εκ το πόλι (near the gate of the city, near the city gate). As we saw above, it may be used in the phrase παρ' εις to show 'motion towards', e.g. σφε τρέχε παρ' εις το ποταμό (he ran towards [the bank of] the river), and with the phrase παρ' εκ to show 'motion from', e.g. σφέλαο άνερχε παρ' εκ το ναυ (they returned from [beside] the ships). The preposition may also have the meaning "beside[s]", e.g. άλλο παρά τούτο-λαό (others besides these [people]). In compounds it has the meanings 'beside, alongside of' and may also mean 'wrongly' (i.e. beside the mark), e.g. παράπεσε (to fall from the way, to go astray, be misled).
περί = around, about: This may be used of place, e.g. σφέλαο στη περί το τοίχο (they stood around the wall), or of time, e.g. περί εκείνο το καιρό (around that time, about that time). It may also mean 'about' in the sense of 'concerning', e.g. σφε πύθε περί το πατρό (he enquired about his father).
πλην = except, except for: Example: παντό πλην με (all except me).
προ = before, in front of: This may be used of place, e.g. προ το θύρο (before the door, in front of the door), or of time, e.g. προ δείπνο (before supper). It may also mean 'in defense of', e.g. σφε μαχε προ το πατρίδο (they fight for their country), or 'in preference to', e.g. σφε αίρει θάνατο προ αισχύνο (he chose death before dishonor, he preferred death rather than dishonor).
προς = to, toward[s]: This preposition may be used of place, e.g. προς το πόλι (to the city, toward[s] the city), or of time, e.g. προς εσπέρο (toward[s] evening).
συν = with: This preposition means 'with' in the sense of 'in company with', e.g. σφε έρχε συν σε (he came with you), 'in accordance with', e.g. σφε δρα συν δίκο (she acted with justice), or to show instrumentality, e.g. σφε τεμε τούτο συν μάχαιρο (he cut this with a knife). In compounds it means 'with, together, altogether.'
υπέρ = over, above: Example: υπέρ το εκ σφέλαο κεφαλό (above their heads). The preposition may be used in the phrase υπέρ εις to show 'motion towards', e.g.σφε βη υπέρ εις το ουδό (he went over the threshold), and the phrase υπέρ εκ to show 'motion from', e.g. σφε έρχε υπέρ εκ το θάλασσο (he came from over the sea[s]). It may also indicate 'over' in the sense of 'in excess of', e.g. υπέρ δύναμι (beyond one's power), and be used metaphorically to mean 'on behalf of', e.g. υπέρ παντό-λαό (on behalf of everyone).
υπό = under, beneath: This is of static position, e.g. υπό το γέω (beneath the earth). The preposition may be used in the phrase υπ' εις to show 'motion towards', e.g.σφε έλαυνε το πρόβατο υπ' εις το σπήλαιο (he drove the sheep into the cave, under the cave), and the phrase υπ' εκ to show 'motion from', e.g. σφέλαο έρχε υπ' εκ το θάλασσο (they came from beneath the sea). It may also be used of time to mean 'towards' (just before we get there, i.e. 'underneath' the point of time we are concerned with), e.g. υπό νυκτό (at nightfall, at dusk), and to be used metaphorically to show the agent of a passive verb, e.g. σφε αγάπα υπό παντό (he was loved by all) (For more about the passive, see 'Verbs: Part 2')

Prepositions used as prefixes

Prepositions may be used as prefixes, particularly with verbs, just as they were in ancient Greek. Indeed, there have been some examples of this in the above section, e.g. βη (to go), ανάβη (to go up), κατάβη (to go down). It will be noticed that the accent in these examples appears on the prefix. This will not always be so; it depends upon the length of the verb itself. The rules are:

If the verb ends in -ε, the accent should on the third syllable from the end (the antepenultimate syllable), if possible; otherwise it goes onto the next to last, e.g. πέσε (to fall), παράπεσε (to fall away, go astray) but σχε (to have), πρόσχε (to have [something] beforehand).
If the the verb ends in any other vowel or diphthong, the accent will be on the next to last, as in the examples βη (to go), ανάβη (to go up), κατάβη (to go down).

Of course, prepositions that end in a single vowel will elide that vowel before another vowel, except for μέχρι, μεταξύ, προ and περί which always retain their final vowel; and εκ, of course, becomes εξ before a vowel. The prepositions εν and συν are also modified before certain consonants. Joseph kept exactly the same rules as in the ancient language, thus:

εν becomes
  εμ- before π, β, φ, ψ and μ, and
  εγ- /ɛŋ/ before κ, γ, χ and ξ.
  Before λ it becomes ελ- but remains unchanged in writing before all other consonants.
συν remains συν- only before vowels and before τ, δ, θ and ν. Before other consonants it becomes
  συμ- before π, β, φ, ψ and μ, and
  συγ- before κ, γ, χ and ξ, and
  συλ- before λ, συρ- before ρ and συσ before σ+vowel, and
  συ- before σ+consonant and ζ.

Note: πλην does not occur as a prefix.